QUICK GUIDE FOR REFERENCE AND REVIEW
TECHNICAL TERMS FOR CRITIQUING FILMS
PROFESSOR BOB NOWLAN
A. MISE-EN-SCÈNE
Mise-en-Scène refers to all of the elements placed in
front of the motion-picture camera that are to be photographed or which
otherwise contribute to setting the stage for what is to be
photographed, and this includes settings and props, lighting, costumes
and make-up, figures (including the actors), and figure arrangement,
motion,
and interaction. (Students should note that sometimes lighting is
considered more properly an element of cinematography than of
mise-èn-scene, and is addressed primarily in relation to
discussions of the former as opposed to discussions of the latter.) In
short, mise-en-scène refers to everything which is staged for
the camera, within the shot. Mise-en-Scène
refers to composition for (or before) the camera, as opposed to
composition with the camera or composition in
editing
after the use of the camera. Mise-en-Scène is often
distinguished as one of the four broad technical areas which are
distinctive of film production, with the other three of these being
cinematography (referring to everything having do with the way in which
the camera is deployed in the process of shooting the film), editing
(referring to the "post-production" process of deciding what to use and
how to organize and arrange what is used from the total of what the
camera has shot and recorded), and sound (referring to everything
involved in producing the sound-track which is combined with the
photographed and edited visual image track). Mise-en-Scène is a
term originally used in the theater, and can thereby be thought of as
comprising all of the elements involved in the construction of what we
see in a film which would ordinarily also be involved in the
construction of what we see in a theatrical stage-play.
B. LIGHTING
1. Hard versus Soft Lighting refers to the overall relative intensity
or quality of lighting in a shot, scene, sequence, or film. Soft lighting is characterized by a generally diffused
overall illumination while hard lighting creates sharply defined shadows and textures.
2. Frontal, Side or Cross, Back/Edge/or
Rim, Under, and Top Lighting all refer to the direction of lighting in a
shot or scene -- in other words, to the path of light from a source or
sources to the object(s) lit (and here we are referring to the actual
lighting source[s], not the ostensible source within the story world of
the film). These directions are often combined within a single shot or
scene.
Frontal lighting can be distinguished by its tendency to
eliminate shadows and to convey a fairly flat-looking image. Side or cross lighting, under, and top
lighting are most often used to cast shadows across
and to otherwise sculpt specific features of a character or
other figure. Back, edge, or rim lighting helps separate a figure from its background.
A good way to tell the direction and intensity of light directed upon
an at least human subject is to note the position of the catchlight, a reflection of the light sources, in
the subject's eyes.
3. Key, Fill, and Back Lighting all refer to the source of lighting in a
shot or scene, and making use of various standard arrangements
among these three kinds of lighting sources is a long-standing
convention of Hollywood as well as many other varieties of film
making. The
key light is the primary source, providing the
dominant illumination and casting the strongest shadows. The fill light is a secondary source of lesser intensity
which "fills in" by softening or eliminating shadows cast by the key
light. The back light complements the fill light in this
contribution to the overall illumination and helps, again,
specifically, in distinguishing figures from backgrounds.
4. High-Key versus Low-Key Lighting refers to the degree of contrast between the
light and dark areas of the shot: high key lighting refers to lighting which is relatively quite
bright overall, with a minimum of shadows, where the key light is
strong and dominant, whereas low key lighting refers to lighting which is relatively quite
dark, with a great deal of shadow, and where the key light
is weak and does not dominate. In high-key lighting the contrast is relatively weak, and shadows
are relatively transparent and brightened by the use of fill lighting
whereas in low-key lighting the contrast is relatively strong, shadows
are sharp and deep, and the use of fill lighting is minimized, often
creating a "chiaroscuro effect" through the combination of extremely
dark and light regions together within the screen
image. Film noir is noted for its use of low-key lighting.
5. Lighting filters are placed in front of a lighting source
to change the color of the light used in a shot, scene, sequence, or
film.
6. Actor lighting refers to the use of special lights which are used just to illuminate an actor, and, especially, to separate the actor from a dark background.
C. FILM STOCK
1. Film Stock refers to the strip of material upon which a
series of still photographs is registered; it consists of
a clear base coated on one side with a light-sensitive emulsion. Types
of film stock are differentiated by the different chemical qualities of
the emulsion. Film stock can be black and white or color, and both of
these come as well in varieties which emphasize different hues and
which enable greater versus lesser degrees of distinction
among hues and greater versus lesser degrees of saturation of
particular
hues. In addition, the speed of the film stock refers to its
sensitivity
to light. Relatively slow film stock often requires considerably more light than
relatively fast film stock, and produces a fine grain and a detailed,
nuanced image. Fast film stock requires less light, and often produces
noticeable graininess. Film processing can, however, also have a lot to
do with the degree of graininess of the recorded image.
2. The timing of prints also affects the color range, distinction,
and density of color film stock. Tinting involves dipping already developed black and
white film stock in a bath of dye so that dark areas remain black and
grey, while lighter ones pick up the color. Toning works in the opposite way as dye is added
during the developing process so that darker areas of black and white
film stock are colored while lighter areas remain white or only faintly
colored. Film makers can also hand color film stock or otherwise alter it during or
after its development to achieve various desired effects.
3. Exposure refers, in general, to how much light is allowed to pass through the camera lens while filming or in the developing process. In general, correct or well exposed film is neither underexposed -- too dark, not enough light admitted through the lens -- nor overexposed -- too bright, too much light admitted through the lens. However, film can be deliberately underexposed or overexposed during filming or in the development process. Exposure can be affected as well by the use of lens filters, slices of glass or gelatin placed in front of the lens of the camera or printer to reduce certain frequencies of light from reaching the film. Examples of this which are well known take place in "day-for-night" filming and in the use of diffusion filters and "silks" to create glamorous "halos" around the faces of actresses in classic Hollywood film-making. Exposure also can be affected by flashing, exposing the film before shooting or processing; this can affect contrast by making shadows grayer and more transparent.
D. FILM GAUGE
Gauge refers to the width of film measured in
millimeters. This is what people are talking about when they
mention 35 mm, or 16 mm, film -- or some other measurement (such
as 8 mm, super 8 mm, super 16 mm, 70 mm, and so on). 35 mm is the
standard for large-scale commercial film-making (and film exhibition)
in the U.S. today, yet many professional film makers working
with smaller budgets, and especially those involved in making
non-commercial films, tend to work with 16 mm film, which can be blown
up to 35 mm for
exhibition without great loss in picture quality. (When I took courses
in cinematography my instructor argued that 16 mm was generally
preferable
for all but big-budget film-making, and was of virtually equally high
quality). 16 mm has also been the standard for educational screenings
in schools and classes although many institutions have replaced the
use of film in film courses with videotape in recent years. The last is
a problem because VHS videotape reproductions of films represent a
considerable diminution in image quality -- film is considerably
sharper, more detailed, higher in resolution, and able to carry more
information than VHS videotape, and the transfer process also involves
considerable image loss, diminution in contrast, and distortion of
colors and hues. In
fact, these shortcomings of VHS videotape are often only magnified when
projected onto a larger screen. Laserdiscs and Digital Versatile Discs
(DVDs) overcome many of these problems; laserdiscs have never yet
proven widely cost-effective, yet DVDs promise to do so. Ideally, all
of the films screened in this course would be screened in 35 mm
formats, or, if not in 35 mm, then in 16 mm, laserdisc or DVD formats.
E. SPEED OF MOTION
1. Speed of Motion refers to the relation between the rate at
which the film is shot and the rate at which it is projected. For
depicted movement to look "normal," and "accurate," both rates must be
the same. Both rates are calculated in terms of frames per second. The
standard rate for sound film today is 24 frames per second.
2. Fast Motion, Slow Motion, Stop
Motion/Freeze Framing, Reverse Motion. Fast motion generally describes what happens when fewer
than 24 frames are shot per second, with the assumption that the
projection will take place at the "normal" rate. On the other hand when
more than 24 frames are shot per second and the film is
then projected at the normal rate, what we see is slow motion. Also, speed of motion can be changed in the
course of processing the film by having the printer skip frames
(accelerating the speed of motion), repeat frames (slowing down the
speed of motion), or even stop motion or freeze the frame
(by repeating the same frame over and over until motion appears to stop
or freeze).
Freeze framing or stop motion
also takes place when filming by repeatedly starting and
stopping the camera to film one frame at a time, and by repeating the
same frame, rather than shooting a continuous run of film. Reverse motion is a
trick effect that takes place by reversing the head and tail of a shot
in printing or in projecting the film.
F. CAMERA LENS FOCAL
LENGTH
1. Camera Lens Focal Length. By adjusting the focal length of the camera
lens, the film maker can make objects which are near seem smaller and
further away from each other or make objects which are far seem larger
and closer together while also simultaneously either expanding or
narrowing the horizontal range of the mise-en-scène which we are
able to see. In technical terms, the focal length of the camera lens
refers to the distance from the center of the lens to the point where
light rays converge to a point of focus on the film.
2. Wide-Angle Lens, Normal Lens,
Telephoto Lens, Zoom Lens. The short-focal-length, or wide-angle lens, tends to distort straight lines lying near
the edges of the frame, bulging them outward. A wide-angle
lens exaggerates depth, making figures appear farther from each other
than we would normally expect, and because the use of wide-angle lenses
also make distances between foreground and background seem greater,
figures moving to or from the camera seem to cover ground much more
quickly than we would "normally" expect them to do. In 35 mm gauge
cinematography, any lens of less than 35 mm in focal length is
considered a wide-angle lens. Wide angle lenses are used to record and
show more of the sides of a set or setting than is possible with a
normal lens. Film noir often makes use of wide angle lenses. A lens of
middle-focal-length is called a normal lens, and the focal length here ranges between
35 and 50 mm. The normal lens works to avoid noticeable perspective
distortion, and, as such, normal lenses render horizontal and vertical
lines straight and perpendicular while parallel lines recede to distant
vanishing points. A long-focal-length lens, or telephoto lens, flattens space along the camera axis,
reducing cues for depth and volume, seemingly squashing visible planes
together, diminishing distances among figures, magnifying action shown
at a distance, and making movement to and from the camera seem to
proceed much more slowly than one would normally expect. Telephoto
lenses typically range from between 75 to 250 mm or more in focal
length.
Zoom lenses permit the direct and even continuous
varying of lens focal length within a shot, by magnifying or
demagnifying the objects filmed and excluding or including surrounding
space, permitting the focal length of the camera lens to change from
normal to telephoto to normal to wide-angle (and otherwise) without
stopping the camera and replacing the lens with one of a different
focal length before resuming shooting.
G. DEPTH OF FIELD OF
FOCUS
1. Depth of Field of Focus refers to the range of distances before the
camera lens within which objects can be photographed in sharp focus,
both in terms of how close the object can get to the camera before
going out of sharp focus and of how far it can move away from the
camera before going out of sharp focus. Wide-angle lenses have greater
depths of field of focus than telephoto lenses.
2. Selective or Soft Focus, Deep Focus,
Racking or Pulling Focus. Selective or soft focus refers to focus on only one plane, allowing
other planes to blur. Deep focus refers to what takes place when multiple
planes within the same frame all are filmed in sharp focus. Racking or pulling focus refers to changing focus within the shot,
moving from blurry to crisp or vice-versa (or otherwise).
H. SPECIAL EFFECTS
1. Special Effects refer to a wide range of trick optical
effects, and in particular to wherever tricks work to create entirely
or ultimately fictitious spatial (and occasionally also, temporal)
relations within the shot.
2. Use of Models and Miniatures. This refers to the use of specially
created objects, virtual toys for that matter, which are filmed
to look as if they were full-scale, and often animate as well,
when they really are not.
3. Glass Shots and Superimposition. . Filming through a glass where portions of
a scene are painted on the glass and the other portions are set up and
take place on a stage set or at a location setting is called a glass shot. Either through double exposure or in the
process of printing, combining separately shot images so that
they are laid over one another on the one strip of film is called superimposition.
4. Rear Projection, Front Projection. . In rear projection, the film maker projects footage of a
setting onto a screen and actors are then filmed acting in front of
this projected scene. Front projection projects the setting onto a two-way mirror,
angled to throw the image onto a high-reflectance screen. The camera
then photographs the actors against the screen by shooting through the
mirror. Because of the sharp focus of the projected footage, front
projection tends to blend foreground and background planes more
smoothly and convincingly than rear projection.
5. Matte, Traveling Matte. A matte is a portion of the setting photographed
on a strip of film, usually with part of the frame empty. Through
laboratory printing, the matte is joined with another
strip of film containing the actors. Mattes also can be painted onto
portions of film strips, allowing for the insertion of actors
into highly fantastical looking settings. In a traveling matte, the actor can be shown to move in and
out of the separately designed and photographed background
because the actor is shot against a blank, usually blue background,
then the moving outline of his or her figure is cut out of the
matte in successive strips of film and his or her image is from there
"jigsawed" into these strips.
6. Computer-Generated Effects. Digital compositing can create and
recreate many different kinds of images of settings and figures which
can function entirely on their own, or be combined in many different
ways as well with recorded film of live actors and of actual
settings. Morphing involves the transformation of an object
from one apparent kind shape and/or substance into another by
means of the computer-directed alteration of a digitally reproduced
image of the object.
I. FRAME DIMENSIONS AND
SHAPE/ONSCREEN AND OFFSCREEN SPACE
1. The Frame, Framing. The frame is a single image on a strip of film. When a
series of frames is projected onto a screen in quick succession, an
illusion of movement is created by the spectator. The frame may also be
thought of, less technically, from the vantage point of the film
spectator, as either the border of the projected image, or as the
projected image up to and including the border. Framing refers to the use of the edges of the film
frame to select and compose what will be visible onscreen,
and, again, in less technical terms, to movement of the camera
to keep objects within the film frame so that they will remain part of
the reproduced and projected image -- of what we see onscreen.
2. Aspect Ratio, Academy Ratio,
Widescreen Ratios, Anamorphic Processes, Cinerama, Omnimax, Wraparound
Ratios, Pan and Scan Processes, Letterboxing . The ratio of frame width to frame height
(in both shooting and projecting) is called the aspect ratio. The classic Hollywood, academy ratio is 1.33:1, whereas since the mid-1950s
various
widescreen ratios have come to dominate 35 mm commercial film
making; in the U.S. the most common is 1.85:1. Using what is called
an
anamorphic process a special lens "squeezes" the image
horizontally during filming or printing and a comparable lens
unsqueezes
the image during projection; this is an alternative way of creating a
widescreen image while not using a widescreen ratio in the choice of
the film frame used during shooting. Sometimes mattes (or masks) are
used during shooting to cover over areas that will be eliminated during
printing or projection with the remaining image expanded to fill the
gap, and sometimes mattes are used after filming to cut out sections of
what was shot so that it is not printed or projected (such as visible
microphones or lights on the set). Cinerama presents spectators with a rectangular
screen which is slightly curved at the edges to increase our sense of
immersion in the image. Omnimax presents spectators with films that fill the
entire field of vision in projection; these films are shot with
anamorphic lenses that compress the image from top to bottom as well as
from side to side. In wraparound ratios. the frame runs in a complete circle around
the audience.
Pan and scan processes selectively pick out from widescreen film
ratios to fit the confines of video reproductions, in particular for
home television viewing. The TV screen generally follows the academy
ratio;
letterboxing duplicates the widescreen film ratio in
the transfer to the academy ratio used in video presentation,
leaving parallel rectangular strips, usually black, at the top
and the bottom of the frame.
3. Onscreen and Offscreen Space. Onscreen space refers, obviously, to the space which is
filmed for us to see when the film is projected to us. Offscreen space, however, always surrounds onscreen space,
and onscreen space becomes offscreen space and vice-versa continually
throughout the course of most films. It is important to be aware of the
extent to which film makers manipulate audiences' awarenesses,
expectations, speculations, and curiosities about what is offscreen,
and its relation to what is onscreen, as a principal means of
"suturing" these spectators into positions of identification with the
image and/or the camera "look." There are six zones of offscreen
space: the space beyond each of the four edges of the frame, the space
behind the set, and the space behind the camera.
J. ANGLE, LEVEL, AND
DISTANCE OF FRAMING
1. Angle of Framing, Straight-On Angle,
High Angle, Low Angle, Oblique Angle. The angle of framing refers to the angle from which the image is
shot, or, in other words, to the position or viewpoint of the camera
vis-a-vis the mise-en-scène or the center of
action in the mise-en-scène. The straight-on angle is as the term suggests, the high angle is shot from above, the low angle is shot from below, and the oblique angle is shot from the side.
2. Level Framing, Canted Framing. In level framing the horizontal edges of the frame are
parallel to the horizon of the shot and perpendicular to the poles of
the shot; everything looks "normal" and not "tilted." In canted framing the horizon and poles are at diagonal
angles, and the frame is canted, or tilted, in one manner or another;
in canted framing, the image appears tilted within the frame.
The Third Man is one film which make famous use of canted
framing.
3. Distance of Framing, Extreme Long
Shot, Long Shot, Medium Long Shot, Medium Shot, Medium Close-Up,
Close-Up, Extreme Close-Up. Distance of framing refers to the distance of perspective or
point of view of the camera, and of us as spectators who look with the
camera, from the image, scene, or object filmed. Distance of framing
refers to how far or close to the mise-en-scène we appear to be
in looking at it with -- and through -- the camera-eye. In the extreme long shot, we have an overview of an entire scenic
location in which human figures are barely visible and their specific
features are almost indiscernible. In the long shot, the human figure is now visible and its
features broadly discernible but the background still dominates. In the medium long-shot, we see the
human figure from approximately the knees up. In the medium shot, , we see the human figure from approximately
the waist up. In the close-up we see the human figure from approximately
the neck up, and in the extreme close-up we see only portions of the face, such as
the eyes or the lips. As you can see, given the fact that these
distances are calculated rather loosely and in terms of relation to
human figures, they are approximations and not rigid technical
distinctions. In part perhaps because of the looseness and flexibility
of these terms, they are among the most familiar and commonly used in
popular as well as scholarly forms of film criticism.
4. Subjective or Point of View Shots . Subjective or point of view shots are shots which are seemingly taken or
offered from the point of view of a character or another figure within
the mise-en-scène. Whenever a shot prompts us to take this as
the look and perspective of a character, or other figure, on the scene,
this is called a point of view, or pov, shot. Reaction shots are shots which, in contrast to point of
view shots, show a character's, or other figure's, at least supposed
reaction to what has been shown to us in a shot shown to us shortly
before, if not immediately preceding, this one.
K. CAMERA
MOVEMENT/MOBILE FRAMING
1. Camera Movement/Mobile Framing . Camera movement and mobile framing are two words for the same thing: they refer
to the variety of ways in which the camera can move and change our
position in relation to the image within the shot; in the course of the
camera so moving, the frame moves as well.
2. Panning, Tilting, Tracking or Dollying
or Trucking, Craning. In panning and tilting the camera
apparatus as a whole does not move but the camera does rotate on its
axis.
Panning refers to what appears as a horizontal
scanning of space; this follows from the camera rotating on its
vertical axis. It is as if the camera turns its "head" to the right
and/or the left. Tilting refers to what appears as vertical scanning
of space; this follows from the camera rotating on its horizontal axis.
It is as if the camera turns its "head" up and/or down. In tracking or dollying or trucking shots, the camera apparatus as a whole
moves, traveling in various different possible directions on the ground
-- forwards, backwards, circularly, diagonally, or from side to side.
In
crane shots, the camera apparatus as a whole moves
up or down, rising and/or descending from ground level. Whereas panning
and tilting look to us as if only the camera's head moves (or its eyes
move), tracking and craning look as if the camera's
whole body moves.
3. Steadicam, Hand-Held Camera. A steadicam is a substitute for the tracks or dolly
on which the camera moves in a tracking or dolly shot; it is
a device by which the camera is attached to the camera operator's body
with a special brace which prevents the camera operator's movement with
the camera from showing up in what the camera records as bumping,
bouncing, or jiggling of the image: the image filmed with the steadicam
is instead smooth and steady. In contrast, a hand-held camera is not attached to the camera operator's
body in such a way as to compensate for the effects of the operator's
movement upon the recorded image: the image filmed with the hand-held
camera tends to be bouncy, bumpy, and jiggly rather than steady and
smooth.
4. Recognizing Tracking versus Zoom Shots. This is often extremely difficult at
first; however, in tracking shots objects within the mobile frame
change aspects in relation to each other as the camera moves to
different positions vis-a-vis the scene: their relative volume, depth,
and position versus each other all change. In zoom shots, none
of these aspects of the objects filmed change in relation to each
other as the image is only magnified or demagnified as a static whole.
In order to grasp this difference more easily, it is useful to think
of
tracking shots as shots in which we ourselves
appear to move within the image itself, in relation that
is to the constituent elements of (the subjects and objects that
appear as components within) the overall framed image as we look (and
walk or run) with the moving camera. In contrast with this, in zoom
shots it appears as if we do not move but rather as if
the entire framed image moves in relation to us -- either moving
closer to us or moving farther away from
us. 5. Reframing. In general this is one of the most frequent
kinds of camera movements, and refers to a slight panning or tilting of
the camera to keep the main figures within the frame, or
the center of the frame, as they move about on the set or at the
location which is being filmed. 6. Takes, Long Takes. A
take is one run of the
camera that records a single shot. A long take is a quite loosely relative term, but it
generally refers to what happens when a film maker allows a scene to
proceed in front of the camera for a longer than average, or "normal,"
amount of time before the camera is turned off and both it and what
it records are repositioned for the next shot. From the vantage point
of the spectator, the long take is a shot which lasts an unusually long
time before it is edited to another shot. Many times long takes will
stand out for spectators because they will seem unusually theatrical or
naturalistic. Yet while long takes often appear
either more theatrical or more naturalistic, rapid and especially
creative
cutting can often spark intense physical and emotional reactions on
the part of a film’s audience, as well as suggest an intense, highly
charged, and urgent situation or one in which what we see, and the
perspective from which we see, is confused, troubled, and out of
control.
So there exist relative advatages and disadvantages both ways (use of
long takes versus use of short takes); what really counts is how and
especially why (for what) the technique is used as part of a larger
shot,
sequence, scene, episode, and other compositional framework or
thematic structure. L. PERSPECTIVE RELATIONS Perspective relations
refer to the relative size and
apparent depth of (or, in other words, distance between) what we see
within
the frame of the film. Tracking (moving closer or further away
from the scene) changes perspective; zooming (remaining the same
distance from the scene yet changing the camera lens focal length so it
appears as if the scene is closer or further from us) does not,
unless zooming is accompanied by simultaneous tracking. These relations can be creatively
manipulated by simultaneously changing both the focal length of the
camera lens and the distance of the camera from the
mise-en-scène -- or at least the distance of the camera from the
principal subject or subjects within the mise-en-scène.
Perspective can be creatively manipulated between shots by moving the
camera further or closer to the mise-en-scène while the camera
is turned off and by simultaneously changing the camera lens before the
camera is turned back on to continue filming the scene (i.e. changing
from wide-angle to normal, normal to telephoto, normal to wide-angle,
telephoto to normal, wide-angle to telephoto,
or telephoto to wide-angle). Perspective can be creatively
manipulated within the
single shot by tracking
forward or backward at the same time as the camera zooms from one lens
focal length to another (i.e. from wide-angle to normal, normal to
telephoto, normal to wide-angle, telephoto
to normal, wide-angle to normal to telephoto, or telephoto to normal
to wide-angle).
M. THE FILM SHOT The Film Shot. A film shot is a single, continuous, uninterrupted
recording of a scene from start to stop of the camera. In viewing
a film, a shot may also be thought of as referring to one, continuous,
uninterrupted static or mobile framing of an image or scene -- to
everything, in other words, between the appearance of one edit and the
next. N. EDITING/FADES, DISSOLVES,
WIPES, CUTS 1. Editing of Shots. In general, editing of shots refers, simply, to combining shots
together,
most often after shooting -- in other words, to the process of
selecting and joining specific camera takes. In viewing
the film, looking at the film from the vantage point of the spectator,
editing refers to the entire set of techniques that governs relations
between specific shots. 2. Fades, Dissolves, Wipes, Cuts. Fades are gradual movements from dark to light or
from light to dark in transition from one shot to the next. Dissolves involve a superimposition of images from two
successively ordered shots in the transition from one shot to the
next. Wipes involve one shot pushing another shot off
the screen as a transition from the one shot to the next. Cuts involve the splicing of two shots (or, more
precisely, the frames of strips of film comprising each of the two
shots) together. In the viewing of the film, cuts are perceived as
relatively
instantaneous changes from one framing to another, whereas fades,
dissolves, and wipes are perceived as more gradual and pronounced; cuts
are conventionally understood to mean no change in time or place has
occurred between the one shot and the next, whereas fades, dissolves,
and wipes are conventionally understood to mean that time has passed
and often that the location of the scene has shifted as well.
O. DIMENSIONS OF FILM EDITING 1. Graphic, Rhythmic, Spatial, and
Temporal
Relations among Edited Shots. .
Graphic relations among
edited shots refer to patterns of light and dark, line and shape,
volume and depth, and movement and stasis that are created by the way
in which a sequence of shots is edited together. Rhythmic relations among edited shots refer to
patterns of relative length of shots in relation to each other that are
created by the way in which a sequence of shots is edited
together.
Spatial relations
among edited shots refer to patterns of movement from place to place
that are created by the way in which a sequence of shots is edited
together. Temporal relations among edited shots refer to
patterns of movement from time to time that are created by the way in
which a sequence of shots is edited together. 2. Graphic Matches, Graphic Contrasts and
Conflicts, Graphic Continuity and Discontinuity. In graphic matches shots which are edited together are similar
in their range of graphic qualities whereas in graphic contrasts and conflicts this is not the case. Graphic continuity refers to maintaining emphasis upon the same
graphic qualities across a sequence of edited shots whereas graphic discontinuity refers to creating contrasts or conflicts in
graphic qualities across a sequence of edited shots. 3. Length of Shot. The length of a shot refers to the number of frames, feet, or
meters involved in a shot. 4. Accent, Beat, and Tempo of Cutting. The beat refers to the "pulse" involved in the
rhythmic relations created among edited shots, the accent to patterns of stronger versus weaker beats
in these relations, and the
tempo to the overall pace
involved in the rhythmic relations among edited shots. For instance,
shots of relatively the same length may follow
upon each other in an edited sequence, or the length of shots may
steadily increase, decrease, or vary in a "staccato" style. 5. Montage Sequences. A montage sequence is a segment of a film that quickly
summarizes a
topic or compresses a significant passage of time into a series
of fairly brief symbolic or typical images. Frequently dissolves,
fades, and wipes are used to link images in a montage sequence, and
they are often used to tell us information which is
necessary to understand a film's story and yet which is not
dramatically of interest and therefore is judged not to be worthy of
very much
time in the film. 6. The Kuleshov Effect. Named after Soviet film maker Lev
Kuleshov, this refers to what happens when spectators draw conclusions
from sequences of edited shots about the spatial and temporal relations
between objects shown in conjoined shots (especially
about their proximity or continuity) without knowing for sure if
this is truly the case. The film maker can edit shots of objects filmed
at different times and in different locations so as to suggest to the
spectator that they exist simultaneous together in the same space
and at the same time. 7. Parallel Editing or Crosscutting. This involves repeated cutting back
and forth between or among two or more developing concepts or lines of
action -- such as cutting back and forth between the chasers and the
chasees in a chase sequence. 8. Order, Duration, and Frequency of
Presented Events.
Editing is the chief means by which the film maker a. arranges the order in which
the events that comprise a film will be presented to the spectator
within and over the course of the film, b. determines the relative
length of time, or
duration, spent focusing
on any one versus another of these events in what is presented to the
spectator, and c. focuses on an event only once or a number of repeated
times (the frequency of presentation) in the course of the film
as a whole. 9. Flashbacks, Flashforwards, Ellipses,
Expansions or Overlaps.
Flashbacks and flashforwards refer to the presentation of events
from the film's story out of the temporal order in which they
occur: move from the
present to the past and
flashforwards from the
present to the future.
Ellipses cut out time
from what necessarily has to
happen in
the story but is not judged to be of sufficient dramatic interest to be
shown to us,
expansions add time to
events in the story which do not need to take so much time in order to
take place but which are judged to be worthy of our expanded interest
and attention, and
overlaps are expansions
that take place by repeating part of what has been shown in one shot or
sequence in the very next one. P. STYLES OF FILM EDITING 1. Continuity versus Discontinuity
Editing. Continuity editing is relatively seamless, undistracting, and
smooth, inviting us to ignore, forget, or even fail to recognize that
editing has taken place.
Discontinuity editing is
relatively seamful, distracting, and deliberately rough, calling
attention to the fact that editing has taken place. 2. The 180 degree line and editing
conventions.
According to conventions of continuity editing, the camera should never
be moved more than 180 degrees from where it was positioned vis-a-vis
any one scene it is recording in cutting from one shot to the next. In
this practice an imaginary
180 degree line is drawn
from where the camera is located in filming the first shot, and, in
filming the second shot, the camera
cannot, according to this convention, be moved any further along
this line than the full 180 degrees from where it was positioned for
the first shot. This convention is designed to insure that the
direction of movement of figures on the screen appears continuous to
the spectator as the film moves from one shot to the next and also
that the direction in which the figures are positioned in their
movements
in relation to each other, the setting, and the spectator likewise
remains continuous from the one shot to the next. If this "rule" is
violated, characters moving from right to left in a first shot will
then appear to me moving from left to right in a second shot -- as
one example of the kinds of jarring discontinuity that can occur in
editing together shots of the same scene in which the camera angle is
more than 180 degrees different in the second shot from what is was
in the first. 3. The shot/reverse shot convention and
eyeline matches.
This involves cutting from one end to the other of the imaginary 180
degree line, and is especially common in conveying the appearance of
ongoing conversation between two characters. We begin by looking over
the shoulder of one character and directly at the second character
involved in the conversation. Then we
cut to look from over the shoulder of the second character and
directly back at the first. And so on, back and forth. An eyeline match occurs when the look associated with one
character
is made to seem exactly to match what is looked at in cutting from the
former to the latter; this technique is often combined with the
shot/reverse shot convention in conveying an image of conversation
between two characters. More elaborate sequences of shots and reverse
shots as well as of eyeline matches can also be employed in rendering
the appearance of conversation among more than two characters,
especially if the conversation lasts for any significant duration of
time. 4. Establishing shots, reestablishing
shots. An establishing shot establishes the overall location of a story
or scene, and is usually an extreme long or long shot and shot using a
wide angle lens. A reestablishing shot is a
shot which returns to offer a view of the overall location of a story
or scene, to reorient the spectator, after considerable time has passed
since the initial establishing shot. 5. The match or cut on action. This is another frequent convention
of continuity editing in which cuts take place at the point
of action within a scene, starting the action in the one shot and
then picking it up in the next. This convention also helps insure
a smooth continuity and a relative transparency of cuts between
shots. 6. The cheat cut, point-of-view cutting,
head-on or tail-on cuts.
A cheat cut is a cut which hides changes in relative
positions or other spatial relations among figures or objects in the
mise-en-scène. These changes have taken place in between shots,
and are not made visible to the spectator. Point-of-view cutting refers to cutting from an actor to what he
or she looks at from an angle and distance that suggests his or her
point of view.
Head-on cuts are cuts
that take place as action within a scene moves toward the camera,
and tail-on cuts are cuts that take place as action in the
scene moves away from
the camera. 7. The 30 degree rule, jump cut. According to another convention of
continuity editing, the position of the camera must be moved at least
thirty degrees in order to justify any cutting. A jump cut is a cut that happens in violation of
the 30 degree rule, and the effect is of the image "jumping"
because there has been relatively little, if any, change in the angle
or distance of the camera vis-a-vis the mise-en-scène from the
shot prior to the cut -- the camera has not been moved any
further than 30 degrees from where it was positioned vis-a-vis the
scene in the previous shot. "Jump cut" is often also used to describe a
wider range of practices: a. editing out the central part of a
continuous action so the characters seem to jump from one place to
another with the cut; b. switching suddenly from one action to another
with the cut; c. cutting from one time to another or from one place
to another while maintaining the same camera angle and using the same
camera lens; d. alternating shots between participants within a
conversation
with very little change in camera angle; e. suddenly changing the angle
of the camera or position of the performer in two consecutive shots
of the same character; d. cutting, especially sharply and suddenly,
from a long or medium shot to a close-up of the same character or
action; e. cutting from one shot to another in the same scene with a
new figure suddenly appearing in the second shot. In sum, the broader
use of "jump
cut" refers to any cut between two shots that seems highly abrupt and
calls
attention to itself because of some obvious, and often startling, jump
in time or space.
Q. DIGITAL SHOOTING AND
EDITING
R.
FUNDAMENTALS OF FILM SOUND 1. Loudness, pitch, timbre. Loudness refers to amplitude or breadth of
sonic vibrations, pitch refers to frequency (which determines relative
"highness" or "lowness" of sound) of sonic vibrations, and timbre
refers to the harmonic components (which give "color" to sound) of
sonic vibrations. 2. Speech, music, noise/sound effects. Film soundtracks conventionally
combine these three distinct types of sound. A sound effect is any sound in a film made by other than
human voice or music; often these are added after filming,
and are produced by a
foley artist through the
creative manipulation of a
variety of possible sources other than their ostensible source in
the film. 3. Combining and layering in sound
recording and editing.
This is relatively obvious, and
refers to what takes place in deciding how to use (to mix) multiple
sounds -- and sound sources -- together within the one soundtrack
and/or portion of the soundtrack. 4.
Dialogue overlaps in cutting. This is another convention of
continuity editing, and refers to the practice of cutting in the middle
of what the film spectator (actually, in this case, the film auditor)
will perceive as an ongoing spate of dialogue. Once again, this helps
render the cut largely transparent. 5. Rhythm, harmony, melody, and
instrumentation of music track. To begin, it is important to
note, in studying the impact and importance of film sound, that speech
and sound effects, as well as music, can be composed in particular
rhythmic, harmonic, and even melodic patterns to help express and
communicate meaning. Rhythm refers to
the patterning of sound across time: rhythm combines the effects of
beats (or pulses) and of accents within measures, phrases, and larger
discrete temporal structures according to particular paces (or
tempos). What's more, rhythm may take shape (and exert its effect
upon a film audience) by means of repetition, variation,
combinations of repetition
and variation, varying kinds of repetition, and repeated kinds of
variation. Harmony refers to the simultaneous occurrence
of
sounds from differently "spaced" pitches (and also, at times, of at
least
slightly different durations) within the same basic increment of time
such that each harmonic constituent contributes to a resultant harmonic
sound that is qualitatively distinct from the sounds of each of these
constituents sounding alone. Harmony, in addition, usually
involves
some kind of hierarchical relationship among the combined sounds in
terms
of relative loudness, emphasis, importance, pitch, and timbre. Melody
refers to a temporal succession of (especially musical) notes
(and chords) of different pitch within an organized, and
repeatable, series. Film makers quite commonly use melodic (and
at times non-melodic or anti-melodic) musical motifs to
represent particular characters, states of mind, emotions, activities,
events, memories, dreams, and fantasies, especially when these reappear
(or recur) on multiple occasions over the course of the film.
Finally, instrumentation refers to what specific
musical instruments or sounds play at particular moments, over
particular intervals, in what particular patterns within a music track,
and
in what kinds of relations with each other. Woodwind,
brass,
string, and percussion instrument sounds evoke different mental and
emotional associations and reactions -- likewise with the sounds
of specific woodwind, string, brass, and percussion instruments and
from particular styles of playing these (e.g., the differences between
the sounds of a cello versus that of a violin, of a flute versus that
of a bassoon, of a trumpet versus that of a trombone, and of a snare
drum versus that of a pair of cymbals can be quite profound). The
same possibilities apply as well among the wide array of electrically
and (especially) electronically synthesized sounds available to film
musical composers today -- and these include sounds that extend far
beyond mere copies, or approximations, of the sounds of traditional
musical
instruments. In sum, rhythm, harmony, melody, and instrumentation
are the four key dimensions to which film makers pay close and careful
attention in selecting and deploying sound, especially within a musical
track, so as to attempt to affect film audiences in one way or
another.
Pay attention to each of these dimensions in studying how sound
contributes
to a film's reach, power, and achievement; listen for rhythm, melody,
harmony, and particular choices of instrumentation as well as
particular
uses of instruments in "reading" the film critically. 6.
Sound fidelity. In
talking about film sound, fidelity refers to the faithfulness of the sound to
its ostensible and/or perceived source in the film. Much of
what we hear on the soundtracks of most commercial, and even many
non-commercial, films today, is recorded and/or added separate from,
and most often after, the filming of "the image track" --
in a sound studio. This often includes actors' speech, the musical
score, and various sound effects -- both sound effects which make
the sounds associated with visible objects which we perceive to be
making these noises in the film, and sounds which are not associated
with any visible source in the film. S.
SOME COMMON USES OF FILM SOUND 1. Diegetic versus non-diegetic sound.
Diegetic sound has its
(at least ostensible) source
within the visible story world of (within the mise-en-scène,
within what we see in) the film. Non-diegetic sound has its source outside of this world
and comes from a source we cannot see. 2. Sound over (including voice over). This is the most typical kind of
non-diegetic sound in film. Voice-over narratives, especially combined
with the presentation of long flashbacks, are common in film
noir. 3.
Synchronous versus asynchronous sound,
simultaneous versus nonsimultaneous sound, sonic flashbacks and sonic
flashforwards, sound bridges. Synchronous sound involves an exact match of sound and image
tracks in the projected film whereas whereas asynchronous sound
refers to what
happens when these are deliberately or accidentally not so
coordinated with each other. Simultaneous sound refers to sound which takes place
at
the same time as the image which we see; non-simultaneous sound includes
sonic flashbacks, where we hear sounds from the past of the
story at the same time as we watch images from the present, and sonic flashforwards in whichs we hear sounds from the future of
the story at the same time as we watch images from the present or in
which we hear sounds from the present together with the presentation of
images which flashback to the past. Sound bridges involve either a lingering of sounds from a
previous scene as images from a new, and successive, scene appear
before us, or the emergence of sounds from the next, successive scene
together with the continuation of images from the present scene.
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